This workshop focuses on the nine categories of instructional strategies that research shows have a high probability of enhancing student achievement for all students in all subject areas at all grade levels. You will learn about English language learner (ELL) applications for each of the categories based on generalizations from the research, recommended classroom practices, and past uses of the strategies with ELLs.

Key Ideas for Chapter 1

Here are the key ideas for this chapter:

• Using meta-analysis, McREL staff reviewed over 100 studies on instruction, covering a period of more than 30 years, to identify strategies with a high probability of enhancing student achievement for all students, grade levels, and content subject areas.
• McREL reported its findings in terms of effect size: the increase or decrease in achievement of the experimental group when using a particular strategy.
• Effect size can be interpreted in terms of percentile gains, just like standardized tests.
• McREL identified nine categories of strategies that have a high probability of enhancing student achievement.
• Although on average all identified strategies are effective, none works all the time. It is therefore important to use a variety of strategies and to use them purposefully, intentionally, and explicitly.

Goals for the Workshop

As a result of this workshop, you will

• Understand how McREL identified strategies to enhance student achievement.
• Learn why the stages of second language acquisition are important and what their instructional implications are.
• Know how to apply the instructional strategies for ELLs in K–12 mainstream classes.

Notice the last goal. This workshop is designed for mainstream teachers; it is not a manual on becoming an ESL teacher.

Meta-analysis

A meta-analysis combines the results of many studies to determine the effects of a strategy. Results are expressed as effect size, which is measured in units of standard deviation.

The effect size indicates the increase or decrease in achievement between a group of students who are exposed to a specific instructional strategy and a control group. The instructional strategies identified in McREL's research have average effect sizes from .59 to 1.61. Although these numbers seem small, they actually indicate medium to large achievement gains.

In education, it is often more meaningful to talk about effect size in terms of percentile gains, as schools and parents have long received student scores in the form of percentile rank (that is, the percent of participants who score at or below a particular score). For example, an effect size of 1.0 can be translated into a 34-point percentile gain using a statistical conversion table.

Because meta-analysis allows for thousands of subjects, it can result in particularly powerful conclusions. McREL reviewed research on instruction going back 30 years and involving thousands of educators.

For more information on meta-analysis, please refer to the McREL research paper, A Theory-Based Meta-Analysis of Research on Instruction (http://mcrel.org/instructionmetaanalysis).

As you plan for instruction, you should consider the nine categories of strategies shown in Figure 1.1. Although on average all of these categories of strategies are effective, none works equally well in all situations.

Figure 1.1. Nine Categories of Instructional Strategies with Strong Effects on Student Achievement

Category	Average Effect Size	Average Percentile Gain	Number of Studies
1. Similarities & Differences	1.61	45	31
2. Summarizing & Note Taking	1.00	34	179
3. Reinforcing Effort & Providing Recognition	.80	29	21
4. Practice & Homework	.77	28	134
5. Nonlinguistic Representation	.75	27	246
6. Cooperative Learning	.73	27	122
7. Setting Objectives & Providing Feedback	.61	23	408
8. Generating & Testing Hypotheses	.61	23	63
9. Cues & Questions & Advance Organizers	.59	22	1251

Please note that the percentile gains shown in the chart are not cumulative. If you employ all nine categories of instructional strategies in your classroom, you will not have a percentile gain of 258 percent!

Marzano, Pickering, and Pollock (2001) created nine categories of strategies because it was necessary to group the information from the research results in a practical and usable way. Some people might think that these categories are nothing new, and they would be right. McREL's research validates what many teachers already know. Educators can approach each category in light of the work that might already be under way in their schools or districts.

Definition of Categories

Because the categories of instructional strategies are the centerpiece of this workshop, it is important that we all understand their definitions. Figure 1.2 shows definitions for each of the nine categories in terms of the outcome for students.

Figure 1.2. Definitions of Categories of Instructional Strategies

Category	Definition
Similarities & Differences	Strategies that enhance students' understanding of and ability to use knowledge by having them identify similarities and differences among items
Summarizing & Note Taking	Strategies that enhance students' ability to synthesize information and organize it in a way that captures the main ideas and key supporting details.
Reinforcing Effort & Providing Recognition	Strategies that enhance students' understanding of the relationship between effort and achievement by addressing students' attitudes and beliefs about learning Strategies that reward or praise students for attaining goals
Practice & Homework	Strategies that encourage students to practice, review, and apply knowledge Strategies that enhance students' ability to reach the expected level of proficiency for a skill or process
Nonlinguistic Representation	Strategies that enhance students' ability to represent and elaborate on knowledge using images
Cooperative Learning	Strategies that provide a direction for learning and encourage students to interact with each other in groups in ways that enhance their learning
Setting Objectives & Providing Feedback	Strategies that help students learn how well they are performing relative to a particular learning goal so that they can improve their performance
Generating & Testing Hypotheses	Strategies that enhance students' understanding of and ability to use knowledge by having them generate and test hypotheses
Cues & Questions & Advance Organizers	Strategies that enhance students' ability to retrieve, use, and organize what they already know about a topic

The strategies in this workshop are tools for your toolbox and are most effective when implemented purposefully, intentionally, and explicitly, or "P.I.E.":

• Purposefully—implemented in accordance with recommendations
• Intentionally—implemented with sufficient time and intensity
• Explicitly—implemented consistently and until success is achieved

Activity

Look at the categories of instructional strategies and their definitions. Which one do you implement most competently? Which one do you need to learn the most about to enhance your instructional practice? Share your selections with your table team.

We Don't Have All the Answers

Although the research has taught us a great deal, unanswered questions remain. For example, we don't know if some categories of strategies work better than others for certain subject areas or with students of different backgrounds or aptitudes.

It is important to remember that no one category of strategies works in all situations, and that the effectiveness of any strategy depends on the teachers' thoughtfulness and skill. In this workshop, we will look at how and when to apply strategies so that ELLs are most likely to benefit.

Personal Learning Goals for the Workshop

We know that having and setting goals helps focus learning, which in turn has an effect on results. Take a few minutes to reflect on your goals for this workshop. Record your responses to the questions in Appendix 3. Complete only the first two columns of the chart; we will complete the third column at the end of the workshop.