Because of strides in school reform, schools are becoming more democratic organizations. Yet teachers are usually trained in stimulus-response psychology—a psychology of traditional classroom management that runs counter to the democratic principles of school reform (Graves 1991, Schaps and Lewis 1991). In short, what the reform movement has not addressed is the most critical aspect of educating: what happens in the classroom between teachers and students.
- Making relationships a priority;
- Carrying on respectful dialogue;
- Practicing encouragement and affirmation daily;
- Making decisions through shared involvement (for example, classroom meetings);
- Resolving conflict; and
- Having fun on a regular basis.
Involvement and Belonging
The more students are involved in a cooperative atmosphere, the more responsible they become; and the more responsible they become, the more they feel a sense of belonging. Conversely, their sense of belonging gives them the courage to contribute and participate, and the result is a more cooperative and democratic classroom (Meredith and Evans 1990). The teachers in the Florida programs invite their students into the learning process by asking them to evaluate their own coursework with portfolios, self-evaluations, and so on. They also train students to conduct parent-student conferences, which replace parent-teacher conferences. Students help create rubrics, and they often work in teams. They manage their own discipline problems through classroom meetings. John Leanes, the principal of Carwise Middle School, applied the principles of involvement and belonging to the selection of the school's cheerleaders. Traditionally, schools hold tryouts and judge winners and losers. Leanes, however, asked his students to develop a rubric for cheerleading. The students decided that cheerleaders must come to practice and the games; wear uniforms and no heavy makeup or jewelry; get along and be helpful; arrange their own transportation; and never eat, drink, or chew gum during the games. The result is that Carwise has 85 cheerleaders of every shape, size, and color. Everyone who met the criteria had the opportunity to belong.
To Encourage, Not Praise
To learn the language of encouragement, one must first distinguish it from praise. Praise flatters, rewards, compares, or includes superlatives ("you're the best"). To praise children is to commend their worth. Praise can easily lead to discouragement by fortifying the idea that unless work is praised, it has no value. The focus is on winning the reward rather than on doing the task for the satisfaction that comes with learning (Hitz and Driscoll 1988).
Research suggests that the common use of praise also works against a positive self-concept. Rowe (1974), for example, found that it lowered students' confidence in their answers and reduced the number of verbal responses they offered.
In contrast, encouraging statements are less judgmental and controlling. They help children appreciate their own work and behavior while separating their work from their worth. Instead of saying "Thomas, your writing is great," thus evaluating the finished product, the teacher points out some strength or improvement, such as, "Thomas, I noticed you worked hard on this last paragraph." The focus is now on specific behavior.
Ways to Discourage
- Setting high expectations or unreasonable standards;
- Focusing on mistakes to motivate;
- Making pessimistic interpretations;
- Comparing people; and
- Dominating by being too helpful.
We all need to learn how some of our seemingly innocuous behavior irritates others. Grousing (griping or complaining), for example, is a common behavior that is destructive to relationships, no matter how nicely it is done. In our grousing exercise, teachers are directed to think of a specific student or colleague and not grouse to that person for four consecutive days. Teachers who have followed through with this assignment usually were more encouraging, felt better about themselves, and reported improved, less tense relationships (Evans and Corsini 1994). This technique is an extremely good way to prepare teachers to apply the principles and practices of encouragement.
Natural and Logical Consequences
- relate logically to the behavior;
- be reasonable by focusing on the immediate situation or event;
- respect the student's dignity and not judge the student as good or bad; and
- allow the student to be responsible (accountable) for his actions (Platt 1991).
Consider this other strategy that a teacher used after attempting unsuccessfully to quiet his class. He informed the students that when they got noisy, he would leave the room and would return only when they decided to behave and sent someone to get him. The teacher recalled waiting on pins and needles. Eventually, two boys did come and get him, and since then, the students have been more cooperative.
Using natural and logical consequences is one of several more advanced encouragement methods that help promote cooperation and responsibility.
Others include classroom meetings and limited choices, described below, and conflict resolution.
Managing Through Meetings
Classroom meetings have several purposes. They are opportunities to make decisions about the operations of the class, to help students resolve interpersonal problems, and to give encouragement. They should also be fun. Before teachers can conduct these meetings, they must master the attitudes and skills I've described. They also must teach students some very basic behavior, such as how to sit in a circle, give statements of encouragement, write agenda items, vote, and apply the characteristics of a logical consequence.
In the three Florida programs, these meetings have turned out to be the most effective way to manage a democratic class. Teachers using the meetings have the best relationships with their students and the most orderly classes. At St. Petersburg Challenge, 4th and 5th graders conduct the meetings to solve their problems. They also say encouraging things to one another regularly and resolve disputes by understanding how a consequence is related, reasonable, respectful, and promotes responsible behavior. For example, a group of students decided in democratic fashion to ask two classmates who were fighting to meet alone and work out their differences by talking about them.
The St. Petersburg students went on to challenge the classroom meeting process and voted to have no required homework. Their teacher boldly supported their decision, but she had the students write a letter notifying their parents of their decision and of the meeting process itself. Two weeks later, these students decided they would like to study subjects outside class. They asked to have an "assignment box" placed in the classroom—a box containing descriptions of topics beyond those covered in class that they could pursue on their own.
By taking a chance and giving her students control over homework, this teacher won their cooperation. Her students have now advanced to the point where they use classroom meetings to help her decide ways of learning the curriculum. Many teachers at the Challenge School have reported that their students' increased sense of belonging and power has greatly improved their academic performance. Teachers with Creativity in ChildCare have expanded classroom meetings into the Encouragement Exchange, a weekly meeting that teachers and other staff members may attend to discuss concerns and encourage one another. They may focus, for example, on a student, a staff problem, or a featured article or book. In all three Florida schools, the teachers begin their staff meetings with encouragement sessions. They may take 10 minutes of valuable time, but the sessions set the tone and reduce conflict.
Limited Choices
During encouragement training teachers learn how to foster responsibility by giving students limited choices. Teachers have asked their students, "Do you want to work on the even or odd numbered problems?" "Do you want to hold my hand, or do you want me to hold yours?" A principal may ask a student, "Do you want to apologize to the teacher today or tomorrow?" Such questions convey respect, solicit cooperation, and provide freedom while maintaining order. They are more apt to work than ordering students around or engaging in power struggles.
For example, one teacher reported that getting her students to the art lab frequently precipitated a power struggle. She would tell them to hurry or threaten them with failure or a visit to the principal's office, but evoked only tension and conflict. Out of desperation, she decided to ask, "Do you want to get to the art lab before or after I do?" "Do you want me to take attendance before class or at the end of class?" Almost all the students got to class before or at the same time as the teacher (Platt 1991). An obvious question is: What if the students had said they preferred neither alternative? In that case, the teacher would simply reply that these are the only possible choices. Naturally there will always be some students who will respond in this way, but for many others, the invitation to be involved in a decision will be a new experience. Further, as with all the encouragement model's practices, it's not so much the precise technique that's important as the teacher's attitude. If the teacher continues to give students limited choices and a chance to talk about it, the practice eventually will pay off.
Encouraging Parents, Teachers, and Classes
Students are more apt to be encouraged if their parents and teachers are encouraged themselves. In fact, whole classes sometimes need encouragement. For these purposes, the Florida programs have used these additional techniques.
Letters of encouragement. Parents are likely to be discouraged if their child is having problems at school. Instead of adding to their discouragement, teachers send parents letters that recognize their childrens' strengths or improvement in school.
Frankenstein. Good teachers are often very conscientious and fail to recognize their strengths. This exercise will help them do so, although it is designed only for effective teachers whom the students like. In a class discussion, a facilitator says, "I am Dr. Frankenstein. I am going to make the ideal teacher. Now you tell me what to put in." After a list is drawn up, the facilitator asks the kids how their teacher compares. Predictably, teachers soon recognize their strengths and how well they are doing (Mosak 1970).
Rich school, poor school. This activity measures the degree of classroom encouragement or discouragement. It requires two jars and a roll of pennies. One jar is labeled "strengths," the other, "weaknesses." Each student describes the school's or class's strengths and weaknesses, dropping a penny in the appropriate jar for each one. If the strength jar ends up being fuller, this alone encourages the group. If the weakness jar is fuller, it provides an opportunity to discuss why the students are discouraged and what can be done about it (McCawley-Walton 1993). They may decide to work together to improve things.
Altering Attitudes
Technique alone cannot create a democratic and cooperative relationship; it is the spirit that counts. The encouragement model therefore relies heavily on teachers' willingness to change their own behavior to improve a situation, as well as a willingness to cooperate and overcome difficulty. In my experience, a combination of one-day workshops followed by monthly two-hour training sessions seems to be most effective. Those teachers who found the training useful spurred on those who were pessimistic and cautious about the changes. By contrast, teachers who took only one- or two-day workshops tended to use encouragement as just another technique for controlling and rewarding students. One teacher, for example, used classroom meetings as a way to coerce students into obeying her rules instead of getting the students involved in establishing the rules.
Learning new behavior takes time, practice, and many mistakes. It's worth the effort, however. Since implementing the encouragement model, program leaders at Creativity in ChildCare have seen a 60 percent reduction in incidents of misbehavior among the more than 2,600 students served. They also report vastly improved parent and student satisfaction, a 75 percent reduction in staff turnover, and a 49 percent increase in enrollments. At St. Petersburg Challenge, teachers reported a dramatic decrease in suspensions and incidents of misbehavior after implementing classroom meetings. At Carwise Middle School, not all the teachers have opted to use all the encouragement techniques, but those who have have seen disruptive behavior in their classrooms disappear and referrals and discipline problems dwindle to the few that require special services outside regular classrooms. Further, Carwise students' standardized test scores are now above county, state, and national averages. In 1994, the school received the Governor's Sterling Showcase Award for leadership in quality and teamwork. All three Florida programs support what psychologist Rudolf Dreikurs (1971) maintained: The most important skill for raising a child in a democracy is the ability to encourage that child.
