Kadija and Shelan giggle as they draw pictures to give to another student who will be moving away soon. I ask, “Where is Fatou moving?” Kadija replies that Fatou's family has located relatives in another part of the United States who will take them in until they can rent or buy their own home.
Abdul, usually somber and silent, smiles at me shyly and attempts a joke. I ask why he is in such a great mood. “My dad called last night,” he tells me. Five years ago, during the war in Ethiopia, Abdul's family was separated from his father, and they had not heard from him since then. Now they will try to get him a sponsor so that he can join them.
“OK. Who needs help on homework?” I ask. About 10 middle school refugee students are gathered in a former store, with partitions separating them from 30 or so elementary refugee students. It is noisy, but those with assignments settle down, knowing that they have only about 45 minutes to work with a native English-speaking tutor before they must go home and attempt to complete their work with no help from parents and no access to a computer. Each tutor usually works with about five students, but often the students can help one another, especially with math. Although most speak good colloquial English, reading the academic textbooks is often challenging.
Since 1975, the United States has permanently resettled 2.4 million refugees. Many of the early refugees were well-educated Southeast Asian families whose children excelled academically. Their successes contributed to the “Asian model minority” stereotype by which successive unskilled and illiterate groups have been measured.
The latest influx includes Muslims from Bosnia, Iraq, Afghanistan, and war-torn African countries, such as Burundi, Somalia, and the Sudan (Mason, 1999; United Nations Commissioner for Refugees, 2002). These groups must overcome difficult barriers. Many are black Africans with significant cultural differences from African Americans; yet white Americans often perceive them to be in the same cultural group, and many African Americans shun them. In addition, Muslims, black and white, belong to a religious tradition that many Americans now associate with violence and terrorism. Many of the girls cannot hide their Islamic affiliation because their families require them to wear a hijab, a scarf covering their hair. Others attract notice as they fast during Ramadan or engage in ritual prayers. As a result, part of their identity is conspicuous and may bring rejection from many of their peers.
Frequently, the children pick up English long before their parents, and they must translate for their parents when, for example, the adults require social services. Many students also must take responsibility for writing checks for family expenses. So in addition to finding their own way through a new country and culture, many refugee students bear adult responsibilities.
Immigrants Versus Refugees
Teachers often do not know that students in their classroom are refugees, and many teachers are unaware of the important differences between refugees and other immigrants. Recent immigrants have chosen to reside in a new country, and they may have visited it in the past. Many have sufficient financial means and family or friends with whom they can settle.
Unlike immigrants, refugees do not leave their homes by choice. The United Nations 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees defines a refugee as a person who,owing to well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality . . . [and] is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to return to it. (Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, 1951, Article I, section 2)
Refugees are forced out, usually in violent circumstances, such as civil war, and often must live in temporary refugee camps with inadequate food, shelter, and medical care. Many suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder after enduring rape or witnessing killing, often the brutal murders of family members (Boothby, 1996). They may live in camps for years before they receive notice that a country is willing to accept them. Except in special circumstances, they cannot choose their new country. Many are poor and have few possessions. Most have never visited the host country before.
The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (2002) estimates that half of the world's 22.3 million refugees and displaced persons are children, with nearly 5,000 children being added to the list every day. Re-settled infants often suffer from preverbal memories that surface in nightmares (Carlin, 1979), and toddlers, moved during their period of rapid language acquisition and cultural socialization, are prone to language-related learning problems and social confusion (Ascher, 1989). Adolescents are frequently caught between the culture of their parents and the desire to fit in with their new peers. In schools where budget cuts have affected programs for English as a Second Language, those struggling with the language may sit in class without understanding anything being taught, and they may experience isolation and depression.
Strategies for Success
- Find out which of your students are refugees. Be aware that they may suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder or other disorders, and let the school counselor know whether students seem to have emotional difficulties. Usually the families cannot afford private counseling.
- Attempt to learn a few words in the students' languages, and learn to pronounce their names correctly. Many feel as though they do not belong when their names are Americanized, and they will be glad to teach you how to say “hello,” “goodbye,” and “thank you” in their native language.
- Make sure that the students are not often sitting by themselves, and place them in mixed groups for class projects, supervising carefully to ensure that they are included.
- Do not assume that the students are slow or need special education services because they do not speak fluent English. It takes three to five years to become proficient in a language, and many students become bored in low-level classes—especially in mathematics classes, where language is less of an issue.
- Teach all of your students about situations that create refugees and what refugees endure before being repatriated or resettled in a new country. Introduce them to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (<LINK URL="http://www.un.org/Overview/rights.html">www.un.org/Overview/rights.html</LINK>) and the Convention on the Rights of the Child (<LINK URL="http://www.unicef.org/crc/crc.htm">www.unicef.org/crc/crc.htm</LINK>).
- In your classes, use literature from your students' countries of origin. Youth novels about refugees can also promote understanding.
- Realize that significant cultural differences may exist. For example, in many cultures it is considered disrespectful for a child to look directly into the eyes of an adult, especially when being reprimanded. If a refugee child reacts unexpectedly to an action by you or another student, try to find out whether the student misinterpreted the action.
- If parents are not actively involved in their children's education, do not assume that they are uninterested. Many refugee parents cannot speak English. Some work two or more jobs. And some come from cultures in which parental involvement in schools is uncommon.
- Be aware that refugee children may be the target of prejudice and discrimination. If you notice particular students taunting them, speak to the offending students in private to resolve situations.
Children such as Kadija, Shelan, and Abdul improve academically as a result of group tutoring sessions after school. These students have good spoken English skills, but they need help with academic English. Because they do not need constant attention from a tutor, they can work in groups, help one another, and receive periodic help from native English-speaking tutors. After-school centers also create a secure space for them to do homework when they need adult supervision while their parents are at work.
Refugee students who have been in the United States for fewer than two years or who have significant difficulties learning English will benefit from an individual tutor. If you have such students in your classes, find out whether a local organization is available to provide individualized help during or after school.
In many urban areas, local nonprofits or national agencies, such as the International Rescue Committee or Amnesty International, can provide assistance. In addition to academic help, teenage refugee students often need coaching on such skills as creating budgets, balancing school and work, and filling out job applications and interviewing. Researchers have documented the academic improvement of foreign-born students who make use of student-centered programs, peer tutoring, and community centers created especially to support them (Aspiazu, Bauer, & Spillett, 1998; Quinn, 1991).
Surviving the turmoil of war and the deprivations of refugee camps indicates refugees' determination to live and succeed. Although starting a new life in the United States clearly does not equate with these earlier experiences, the prejudice and unfamiliar customs that refugee students face create bewilderment and depression for many. To thrive, refugee students need educators' help.
