In planning for the next few years, educators face many challenges—enrollment increases, teacher shortages, and recruitment and retention. Released by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) in July 1997, America's Teachers: Profile of a Profession 1993-94 provides valuable perspectives on such issues. According to NCES Commissioner Pascal D. Forgione, the report presents "eminently useful information, based on the responses of teachers. It draws on the results of several Center surveys to present rich and meaningful findings of interest to educators, parents, and policymakers." Here are highlights from that report.
Demographics of Teachers Today
In fall 1996, there were about 3.1 million teachers (in full-time equivalents) in U.S. schools, an increase of about 600,000 teachers since 1980. Of these, about 2.7 million worked in public schools and 390,000 in private schools. In 1993, of total full-time equivalent staff in public schools, teachers constituted 52 percent; support staff, 31.6 percent; other instructional staff, 14.6 percent; and district administrators, only 1.7 percent. The proportion of district administrators may appear surprisingly small; other findings, such as the predominance of women in teaching, support commonly held expectations.
Teaching is a profession dominated by women. Now, as in the past, the teaching profession is dominated by women. In 1993-94, 73 percent of public school teachers and 75 percent of private school teachers were female. For general elementary and kindergarten assignments, the percentages are 91 percent for public schools and 93 percent for private schools. Only in vocational courses and social studies do the percentages of women drop below 50 percent.
Experienced teachers are the rule. In 1993-94, the average teacher age was 43, up three years from the 1987-88 average. Thus, the teaching force is getting older. In fact, 67 percent of public school teachers and 58 percent of private school teachers were 40 years old or older. On the one hand, this finding raises the question of impending retirements. But on the other hand, this means that the majority are experienced teachers who continue to teach from year to year.
The proportion of minority teachers lags behind that of minority students. Despite widespread belief in the benefits of minority teachers as good role models for all children, in 1993-94 most teachers—87 percent—were white, non-Hispanic. Thus, the proportion of minority teachers lags far behind that of minority students. Sixteen percent of all public school students were black, non-Hispanic, but only 9 percent of their teachers were black, non-Hispanic. And 12 percent of students were Hispanic, but only 4 percent of their teachers were Hispanic. Further, about two-thirds of minority teachers worked in schools where more than half the students belong to minority groups; and schools with a minority enrollment of 10 percent or less had only 1 or 2 percent minority teachers.
Professional Issues in Teaching
- Administrative leadership and support: Generally strong. In the staffing survey, teachers gave their principals high marks. Eighty-six percent thought their principals communicated expectations for the school well; 82 percent, that the principal enforced rules; and 80 percent, that their administrators were supportive and encouraging. Overall, about 70 percent reported that the administration recognized the staff for a job well done (see fig. 1).
- Cooperation among colleagues: Working in harmony. Eighty-five percent of teachers agreed that their colleagues shared their beliefs and had a similar mission for the school, and 79 percent agreed that staff worked cooperatively. For both these factors, agreement was stronger among teachers in private schools than in public schools and stronger among elementary than secondary teachers.About two-thirds of teachers considered that teachers in their schools consistently enforced student conduct rules. As the proportion of low-income students rose, public school teachers reported more often that all teachers in their schools enforced school rules. However, among public secondary teachers, fewer than half agreed that rules were consistently enforced.
- Availability of resources: The basic necessities. About three-quarters of all teachers—73 percent in public schools and 86 percent in private schools—agreed that necessary materials (such as textbooks, supplies, and a copy machine) were available to the staff as needed. Relatively few teachers in either sector—16 percent in public schools and 10 percent in private—considered their principals poor at getting resources for their schools.
- Parental support and involvement: More strongly felt in private schools. In 1993-94, the percentage of teachers who strongly agreed with the statement I receive a great deal of support from parents for the work I do was 12 percent in public schools, compared with 42 percent in private schools (even 42 percent seems less than expected). In both sectors, support was higher at the elementary than at the secondary level. Twenty-eight percent of public school teachers reported lack of parental involvement as a serious problem, but only 4 percent of private school teachers characterized it as such.
- Salaries: Still an issue despite improvement. In constant 1995 dollars, the average public school teacher's annual salary has recovered from the decline of the 1970s. In 1993-94, full-time public school teachers' average base salary was $34,200; the comparable figure for private school teachers was $22,000. Overall, about 45 percent of teachers agreed or strongly agreed with the statement I am satisfied with my teaching salary, while about 55 percent disagreed or strongly disagreed. Among black, non-Hispanic teachers in public schools, 73 percent strongly disagreed or disagreed somewhat with the statement, even though on average their salaries did not differ from those of other racial-ethnic groups. Salary dissatisfaction thus may be related to the gap between the proportion of minority teachers and that of minority students.
- Other satisfactions in teaching: Relatively high. In 1994-95 teachers expressed fairly high rates of overall satisfaction with their jobs: 79 percent reported satisfaction with their working conditions in general, and 82 percent reported satisfaction overall. About 88 percent were satisfied with their job security, the intellectual challenge their jobs provided, and their autonomy over their work. Lower but still substantial proportions expressed satisfaction with the manageability of their work (63 percent), the resources available to do their work (61 percent), the professional prestige of teaching (59 percent), and their salaries (58 percent). (The 58-percent level of satisfaction with salaries was reported in the 1994-95 Teacher Follow-Up Survey, whereas the previously mentioned 45-percent level was from the 1993-94 staffing survey. Because of differing items in the two surveys, these percentages are not directly comparable.)In 1994-95, the percentage of teachers who reported satisfaction with the intellectual challenges posed by their work had risen to 87 percent, up from 81 percent in 1988-89. And a rising proportion of teachers were satisfied with the opportunity for advancement in their work—68 percent, up from 57 percent over the same time span.
- Choosing to teach, choosing to stay. Asked whether they would become teachers again, 66 percent reported they certainly or probably would. Sixteen percent thought the chances were about even, while 12 percent said they probably would not, and only 5 percent said they certainly would not. Teachers who reported positive working conditions were more likely to say they planned to remain in teaching. For example, 40 percent of public school teachers who received a great deal of administrative support planned to stay in teaching as long as they were able, compared with 29 percent who did not receive a great deal of support.
Figure 1. Teachers' Perceptions of Administrative Support
Professional Development and Instructional Practices
In 1994-95, on the Teacher Follow-Up Survey, a cross-section of teachers responded to questions about their use of grouping practices, educational technology, and portfolio assessment, as well as their experiences with professional development.
The effects of professional development. First, teachers who had, in the last two years, taken part in any professional development program on cooperative learning were more likely than those who had not to report using small-group instruction at least once a week—91 percent compared to 83 percent among public school teachers, and 87 percent compared to 77 percent among private school teachers.
Second, professional development also paid off in teachers' use of technology in classrooms. Those who had participated in at least one formal professional development experience on the use of technology were more likely than others to report that they had used computers, video equipment, or other electronic technologies; calculators; or computers for writing.
Third, teachers who had attended a professional development program on student assessment were more likely to use portfolios than other teachers. Further, those who had taken part in professional development were more likely to include interdisciplinary problems and assessments than their counterparts who had not.
Use of grouping strategies. Nearly 100 percent of teachers reported using whole-group instruction at least once a week. More than 90 percent also reported working with individual students at least once a week; and at least 80 percent reported working with small groups that often. At least once a week, 34 percent had students do group projects for individual grades; 18 percent had students do group projects for group grades; and 31 percent reported that their students discussed in class the work they did in small groups.
Use of educational technology. Teachers used various technologies at widely varying rates: 87 percent used chalkboards or overhead projectors to present material; 73 percent used manipulatives or models to present material; 79 percent provided hands-on materials or objects for student use at least once a week. About half reported using computers, video, or other electronic technologies to demonstrate concepts; slightly less than one-third had students use computers for writing; and about one-quarter reported that their students used calculators at least once a week.
Use of portfolios. About 56 percent of all teachers reported using portfolios during the last semester. Most teachers who used portfolios (57 to 62 percent) reported they included worksheets, tests, and assessments in them. A lower proportion (23 to 30 percent) reported including exploratory investigations or work on interdisciplinary problems.
The staffing survey data indicate that the time spent on these activities was often quite limited. Still, for these three strategies, the effects of professional development are clear: Even no-frills staff development resulted in teachers' willingness to try new strategies to improve classroom instruction.
Teachers for Tomorrow: The Children Are Coming, but Where?
NCES projections indicate that U.S. schools will enroll 54.6 million children by 2006, up 10 percent from 1994. NCES estimates that the teaching work force will need to increase by between 325,000 and 600,000 teachers to handle this increase in enrollment, brought about primarily by the rising number in annual births since 1977 often referred to as the Baby Boom echo.
Enrollment increases are projected primarily for the South and the West. In the South, enrollment increases of 3 to 11 percent are projected for 11 states in the region, with Arkansas expected to hold steady and decreases of between 2 and 7 percent expected in Kentucky, Louisiana, Oklahoma, West Virginia, and the District of Columbia. In the West, only Montana is projected to lose enrollment (only about 2 percent); the other 12 states are expected to gain, and 10 of them are projected to gain from 5 to 16 percent between now and 2007. In contrast, in the Northeast, small enrollment increases are projected for Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, and Rhode Island, with Connecticut almost even and slight decreases for the other four states. And in the Midwest, small increases are projected only for Illinois and Indiana, with decreases expected in the other 10 states.
Within states and regions, rural areas and small towns are not likely to see enrollment increases. But in cities and suburbs where economic development and population growth are strong and in point-of-entry cities where immigrants arrive, enrollments are likely to increase. In these locations, schools may indeed face teacher shortages, even though the staffing survey findings do not predict an overall national shortage of teachers in general nor within specific teaching fields. Still, schools with more low-income students had greater difficulty finding qualified teachers, reporting more often the employment of less-qualified teachers and the use of long-term substitutes to fill vacancies.
In 1993-94, 91 percent of public school teachers whose main assignments were in academic subjects were fully certified to teach in those fields. However, only 57 percent of public school teachers whose other assignments were in academic subject areas were fully certified in those fields, and 40 percent had no certification in their other assignment fields. These findings reflect what happens when the same faculty with the same qualifications must be assigned to teach the widely varying program of courses offered from semester to semester.
Celebrating Strengths and Meeting Challenges
Overall, this profile of U.S. teachers reveals a work force of experienced, committed, and well-qualified teachers who find their work very satisfying. In general, teachers enjoy the support of their principals and are reasonably comfortable with the resources provided for their work and the harmony they enjoy with their colleagues. Retirements on a large scale seem an empty threat at the moment. Because support is a factor in teachers' decisions to stay in teaching, the creation of good workplace environments merits consistent attention and effort.
Remedies for the less than ideal numbers of minority teachers in today's teaching profession will require concerted efforts in recruitment and retention on the part of school districts determined to close the gap. The question of salary attractiveness looms large in that effort, as does the generally lower level of teacher satisfaction in schools with high numbers of low-income students.
Low perceptions of parental support and involvement may be the most demanding issues of all. To improve these factors, educators should collect information about local parental support and involvement, analyze their particular situations, and advance collaborative efforts to garner the support of parents and to involve parents effectively in their children's school activities.
School districts that meet these challenges will have much to celebrate when they increase their own ability to attract and hold good employees, recruit and retain minority teachers, and improve perceptions of parental support and involvement. For all of us, this profile offers much to celebrate right now.
