Julie seems like a bright kid. At least that's what her aptitude tests say. You can count her absences on one hand, and she's not a discipline problem. As far as the teacher knows, she comes from a fairly typical home. So why is she—and countless others in her school—driving her teachers crazy? Why do teachers have to go over things twice and even three times for the information to sink in?
We've known for years that teaching does not equal learning. But today we have a better idea of what's going on in Julie's brain. Julie's teacher spends a lot of time reteaching because she doesn't teach in ways that match how Julie's brain learns. This mismatch creates frustration, underperformance, and hopelessness.
Fortunately, new knowledge in neuroscience is redefining possibilities for education. There are five critical variables in the brain's learning process: neural history, context, acquisition, elaboration, and encoding. To find out where neuroscience and the classroom link up, let's explore these from the perspective of Julie's brain.
Neural History
Julie's brain is not blank like a tabula rasa but customized by her life experience. Julie's neural history includes more than her grades and test scores. A seemingly trivial accident—a fall and bump on the head at summer camp—has created a brain insult in her temporal lobe, an area responsible for Julie's semantic memory. That means that although Julie's memory might be good for names and places, it's weaker for numbers and formulas. This behavior puzzles teachers who often think she's simply not trying hard enough in math classes.
Our neural history is founded on a dynamic interplay between nature and nurture called emergentism. At each development stage, different genes are affected by the environment and are uniquely expressed (Elman et al., 1998). Genes, however, are not templates for learning. For example, if there really were a "language gene," then a child raised in isolation would automatically speak. Prior learning, character, the environment, peers, and life experience also influence how we learn.
For instance, many students who have spent too much time in car seats and not enough time on swings, merry-go-rounds, and seesaws have insufficient early motor stimulation and experience poor school readiness. Exposure to constant threat or early trauma often alters the brain's behavior, creating extreme levels of serotonin and noradrenaline. A lack of early enriching activities may influence brain development. Extended television watching in the early years may create learned helplessness or unduly passive or aggressive behaviors. Drug usage can desensitize the opiate receptor sites for pleasure.
At birth, Julie's brain had a trillion neural connections, known as synapses, that were wired in. By now, Julie's 15-year-old brain has countless unique life experiences, and her three-pound operating system is rich with intricate neural wiring that represents information, complex patterns, mental models, and belief systems. She, like others in the class, brings this personal neural history to school each day. Her teacher has the difficult challenge of customizing information for each learner.
Given students' unique experiences, it may be impossible to create a level playing field. However, studies suggest the value of increasing motor activity, arts, music, choices, challenges, and feedback. Teachers should also take time to socialize students through well-orchestrated groupwork to create better social behaviors and a common class history. Evidence suggests that peers are a significant influence on students' academic performances (Hartocollis, 1998).
Brain Fact: Perchance to Dream
The brain activity that occurs as we sleep is critical to maintaining our memories, according to Robert Sylwester. Here's why:
The development of long-term memory requires the physical reconstruction of the brain's synapses in the affected neural networks. But this requires shutting off activity during the rebuilding process, much as a paving crew must detour traffic while a road is rebuilt. Our brain has this opportunity as we sleep, reducing sensorimotor activity while it reconstructs and resets the memory networks that have emerged during the days events.
Source: Sylwester, R. (1995). A celebration of neurons (p. 98). Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Learning Context
Julie's teacher influences her learning brain every day by designing the physical and emotional environment. For example, though Julie finds it easy to arrive on time, she tends to cut it close. Today's close call relates to boyfriend problems. The allotted time between classes is just long enough to start a conversation, but not long enough to finish it. If the broken conversation threatens a potential romantic relationship, trouble begins.
New evidence from Deborah Yurgelun-Todd of Boston's McLean Hospital (personal communication, 1998) suggests that the typical adolescent brain is too immature to read complex facial clues. Misreading peer or role model facial cues often results in inappropriate reactions. However, pioneering neuroscientist Candace Pert of Georgetown University Medical School says, "Unexpressed emotions can inhibit many functions, including learning" (Pert, 1997). Accordingly, teachers must allow for a wider range of emotional expression, even when the expression may be misguided. Classroom examples may include more drama, open discussions, and celebrations.
Educators can assume that some students will arrive at class distressed and even threatened. Therefore, we should invest the first few minutes to accomplish three goals. First, we need to provide an outlet for emotional expression—through discussion, singing, sharing, writing, music, or drawing. Second, we must reconnect learners with one another. Even a positive greeting at the door can reconnect learners with their teacher. Peer contact is also valuable. Third, we must help learners reconnect with the content. Let students have open group discussions, journal writing, paired activities, or mind mapping.
When a person is threatened, the hypothalamus and the adrenal glands team up to release adrenaline, cortisol, and vasopressin. Julie's threat response is great for escaping from predators, but not for learning. The short-term impact of this chemical release includes impaired spatial-episodic memory, weakened ability to prioritize, and greater likelihood of repeated behaviors. Julie's brain is just not ready for learning when the bell rings. But she's lucky; other students are even more threatened by insurmountable language barriers, bullies in the hallways, and hostile home lives. Overcrowded classrooms, unreasonable rules, and impossible deadlines can also feel threatening.
Good teachers who know that emotional climate is critical invest the first few minutes of every class in activities that allow students to get into a positive learning state. Activities might include nonthreatening open-class discussions, journal writing, stretching, paired discussions, mind mapping, listening to music, reflecting, or dancing and games.
As important as emotional safety is physical safety. The brain's optimal physical environment includes a temperature near 70 degrees and a humidity level near 70 percent. Too much heat or too little humidity triggers stress. Students should also have water available without having to ask permission to get it. Nutrition, too, is a factor. We are, after all, always trying to ensure our own survival.
Attentional chemicals also run Julie's brain. Her midday amine level is at its lowest since bedtime. Amines are stimulants, like amphetamine. By early afternoon, Julie's brain is ready for a nap. Although this happens every 90 to 110 minutes, the nadir occurs 12 hours after the midpoint of last night's sleep. Because Julie sleeps from 10 p.m. to 6 a.m., her lowest energy time occurs at 2 p.m. Studies suggest that short, brisk activity increases energy levels (Thayer, 1989). Schools need to integrate more movement into the daily schedule. Repeated physical activity like stretching, playing games, swimming, or walking releases epinephrine and dopamine, which usually lift Julie's spirit.
Another attentional modulator is a common neurotransmitter called serotonin. Its release is triggered by many factors, including dietary tryptophan. Julie's high carbohydrate lunch is coming back to haunt her. She doesn't know that a better lunch might include more protein and trace minerals and fewer carbohydrates. Tuna salad, fruit, yogurt, or nuts can keep the brain going for hours. Educators need to inform parents and kids about what to eat to help them learn.
Acquisition
Julie's teacher has strong models of so-called "good teaching," including the traditional stand-and-deliver model, in which the goal is to get and keep students' attention. But the process of learning is complex. First, much of what we learn comes to us indirectly. Second, the physiological state in which we learn mediates how much we comprehend. A hopeful student and a discouraged student learn differently. Finally, by engaging in trial-and-error learning, students will more likely become lifelong learners.
Too much attention to anything may be counteradaptive. An excessively focused brain may be more susceptible to predators. Although we no longer fear saber-toothed tigers, school threats today come in more subtle packages, such as peer embarrassment. In addition, when teachers insist on holding students' attention, they miss the fact that much learning comes through indirect acquisition, such as peer discussion or environmental stimuli. By making excessive attentional demands on students, teachers can create resentful learners.
Ultimately, brain-compatible teachers may engage learners' attention only 20 to 40 percent of the time and still do a great job. Teachers need to keep attentional demands to short bursts of no longer than the age of their learners in minutes. For a 1st grader, that's about 6 consecutive minutes; for a high schooler, that's up to 15 minutes. Julie's teacher will want to use attention sparingly for introductions, key ideas, directions, lecturettes, reviews, stories, and closings. The rest of the overall learning time (processing, encoding, and "neural rest") ought to be student time, used for processing, projects, discussions, group work, partner work, self-assessment, journal writing, feedback, design, research, mapping, interviews, review, or memorization.
Another strategy to boost acquisition is enhancing prior knowledge. Teachers can provide content slowly, increasing the quantity over a period of days or weeks. This builds connections so that when it's time to explore a topic in depth, every student has the necessary background. Julie is better off not jumping in all at once, but nibbling at learning over time. To do this, teachers should post key points on the bulletin board weeks in advance of assessments.
State-of-mind management is another factor behind acquisition. Great learning states include curiosity, anticipation, and challenge. Each state is defined by a unique brain chemistry formulation that includes neurotransmitters like dopamine and serotonin and hormones like adrenaline. The best teachers successfully manage these optimal learning states. Better yet, they empower their learners to manage them for themselves. Julie's teacher might want to give directions for a complex project in smaller, more interesting chunks. This prevents students from hearing all the directions at once, feeling overwhelmed and discouraged, and then being unmotivated to do the task.
In-depth learning requires the formation of complex, multilayered neural networks. Individual neurons are not very smart. Timely and accurate feedback helps neurons learn first to fire together, then to wire together as a network. When we activate the right neurons, we get a "smarter" organism. Superior learners learn by systematic trial and error. Eventually, they will get the right answer, but more important, they eliminate the wrong answers. In some ways, the worst thing that can happen is for a student to get the right answer immediately. Teachers need to orchestrate circumstances that allow more trial and error. This might include research, discussions, team problem-solving, and projects that have built-in opportunities for self-correction.
What should be the proportion of student time to the total class time? That depends on several variables: learner background, content complexity, and accountability. Teachers ought to spend 55 to 80 percent of their time allowing students to process information. Most teachers don't set aside this time and therefore do an enormous amount of reteaching. Typically, state curriculum standards push each year for more in-depth critical thinking and, paradoxically, for more wide-ranging content. Teachers can go wider or deeper, but not both; something's got to give.
We see evidence of acquisition by the formation of new synaptic connections. Each cell body, or neuron, has spindly branches called dendrites and a single longer projection called an axon. The axon of one cell will typically connect with the dendrites of another. These connections are formed when experiences are both novel and coherent. If experiences are familiar, the existing connections may simply be strengthened. If experiences are incoherent, no learning may result. The sources for acquisition are endless. They may include discussion, lectures, visual tools, environmental stimuli, hands-on experiences, role models, reading, manipulatives, videos, reflection, projects, and pair-share activities. No single way is best for students to learn, but the age-old rule still applies: Students who do the talking and the doing do the learning.
Elaboration
When Julie's teacher asks questions and gets a blank look or a trivial answer, she's puzzled. She shouldn't be. A synaptic connection is often temporary. Neural space is expensive real estate, and the brain builds only what's needed. To ensure that the brain maintains synaptic connections, we need elaboration to strengthen the original contact.
Elaboration is the sorting, sifting, analyzing, testing, and deepening of learning in a way that gives students genuine feedback on how well they understand. It ensures not only that students "own" information, but also that the information is correct. The best feedback is specific and timely.
Julie's teacher still lives in the old paradigm for feedback, in which the classroom teacher is the primary source. But because there's not enough time for any teacher to give enough feedback to every student, teachers have to make sure students get feedback from multiple sources: peer editing, discussions, student-generated rubrics, answer sheets, pair-share, video or audiotaping, predictions, journal writing, outside speakers, or reference materials. When all these are used collectively, students can get sufficient feedback every 30 minutes or less, every single day. Not only will they be more accurate in what they learn, but they will also develop greater intrinsic motivation. Students' brains develop better patterns of thinking because they have more thorough, detailed, reality-tested models for learning.
Encoding
After elaboration, you'd think Julie's brain would have permanently encoded the day's learning. Not necessarily. Learning the information may create a memory trace, but this may not be strong enough to activate at test time. The retrievability of newly created memories depends on many factors: rest, emotional intensity, context, nutrition, quantity of associations, matching states, and learned pathways. But unless Julie's teacher knows this, she'll persist in the old model that says that memory is like a bank of records that students just need to try harder to retrieve.
Rest is a powerful memory aid because during our dream time, we process learning from the previous day. We discard meaningless information and strengthen the rest. When deprived of dream time, or REM (rapid eye movement) sleep, we can still learn material with strict memorization, but we are weaker at logic and can't learn complex material. The more students are exposed to new learning, the more time their brains should engage in the critical REM state. Infants dream the most, elderly people the least. Teachers must remind students that getting enough sleep will maximize their studying.
Intense emotions during or after learning is a reliable way to produce long-term memory encoding. Emotions excite the brain's chemical system, and the adrenaline released acts as a memory fixative, locking up memories of exciting or traumatic events. To engage appropriate emotions, Julie's teacher could use such strategies as better role modeling, competitions, journal writing, celebrations, dramas, creative writing, humor, student presentations, and impending deadlines.
If Julie learns in a classroom and then is tested in a media center or an auditorium, she'll likely underperform. Similarly, if Julie learns in a particular emotional state, she will most readily recall her learning in that same state. If Julie's teacher makes the initial learning fun and playful, the teacher needs to create a second, "rehearsal" stage before giving the more stressful exam.
The neurotransmitter acetylcholine is instrumental in long-term memory formation. Dietary sources include lecithin (found in eggs, salmon, and lean beef). Calpain (derived from calcium) helps digest protein and unblock receptors. Phenylalanine, found in dairy products, helps manufacture norepinephrine, which is also involved in alertness and attention. Researchers postulate that the chemistry of our body, which regulates our physiological states, is critical in triggering our recall.
Increasing the quantity of associations is a good way to increase recall. Because all recall is associative, the more ways that Julie knows the material, the better. She could know about a country through economics, geography, politics, culture, business, and entertainment. She could learn U.S. history through many different points of view: a male, a female, a Caucasian, an Asian, or a Hispanic.
Finally, teachers must match the memory mechanism at assessment time. Otherwise, a student will know the information but will not be able to demonstrate knowing it. The semantic memory system processes words, facts, pictures, stories, and text. If students learn with this pathway, they will need to activate similar associations to retrieve information. This highly volatile and malleable storage system needs constant reviews, mnemonics, word associations, prompts, and practice.
The episodic memory pathway is activated by unique circumstances and locations rather than content. Julie will remember where she was when she learned something more easily than she will recall what she learned. Teachers can activate episodic memory by providing frequent location, posture, group, and scenery changes to create unique "addresses" for learning.
The procedural and reflexive pathways are less malleable and harder to test because they reflect a different kind of learning that includes body learning, conditioned responses, and intuitive knowing. Teachers can engage and assess this type of learning through activity, movement, emotion, drama, repetition, and games.
Each memory pathway appeals to different students and has strong implications for assessment and learning transfer. Realistically, matching learning with assessment is just one of many challenges teachers face to make their classrooms brain-compatible. But it's worth striving for. The more that schools more closely match teaching to the way students' brains actually learn, the more likely they are to reach students and bring out their natural motivation to learn.
Increasing Brain Power
Even the best schools can't turn a mediocre student into a genius. But the experiences that we provide for students can make an enormous difference. Frederick Goodwin of the National Institutes of Health estimates that we can influence students' IQs 20 points in either direction—that's a 40 point IQ swing (Kotulak, 1996)! We educators can and must do our best to bring out the talents of tomorrow's citizens. Brain-compatible learning is a strong and positive step in the right direction.
