We all hope that competent, knowledgeable professionals are teaching our children. With little prompting, most of us can generate a lengthy list of the attributes of a good teacher, a list that stops just short of "walks on water." We are less certain of how a teacher becomes—and remains—a competent, knowledgeable professional. That question becomes important as teacher shortages cause school systems to devise innovative fast-track, career-switcher, or other nontraditional programs to attract people to teaching. A shortage typically results in a lowering of standards, but public expectations of teachers are higher than ever, with communities demanding high standards and accountability.
Whatever path leads them into teaching, teachers need ongoing professional experiences that continue developing, nurturing, and expanding their knowledge and skills. The certification process of the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS) is one of those professional experiences. It is also a potential catalyst for profound changes in what it means to be a qualified teacher.
A Dynamic Process
In 1998–1999, when I conducted a case study of 13 teachers who were candidates for National Board certification (Bohen, 2000), I documented their perceptions during and after the assessment process.
These teachers found the certification process, especially the creation of the portfolio, a powerful and transforming professional development experience. The portfolio—the centerpiece of the National Board assessment—provides a scaffold for teachers to examine their classroom practice. For example, teachers examined and analyzed videotaped lessons that they had taught in order to assess the impact of their instructional techniques on student learning; they then reflected on how they could improve the lesson and student learning.
The teachers found the performance-based portfolio tasks particularly challenging because of their relative lack of experience with analyzing student data, documenting work, articulating practice, and engaging in the kinds of professional inquiry and discourse that the portfolio requires. All the teachers, however, affirmed the value of the intensive reflection and analysis that they undertook as they prepared their portfolios.
Researchers point out that teachers lack a professional tradition of sharing expertise and are often reluctant to articulate professional knowledge because of a culture of isolation (Sagor, 1997). The national certification process seeks to counteract these trends and to develop a dynamic culture of shared expertise and professionalism among teachers.
Strengthening Competencies
The 13 teachers in the case study described how the certification process influenced their teaching practices.
Greater professional confidence. Teachers in the study believed that the intensive reflection and analysis required by the certification process strengthened their skills and professional judgment. I am much more confident in my decisions because I feel more competent in my judgment about what's best for my kids and how best to reach them. (Bohen, 2000, p. 103) Scholars support the view of teaching implicit in this teacher's statement, pointing out that teachers, like other professionals, enrich their professional knowledge through experience, developing a valuable repertoire of practices and theories (Schon, 1983). The National Board also advocates this view of teaching, pointing out that the formal knowledge that teachers rely on accumulates steadily, yet provides insufficient guidance in many situations. Teaching ultimately requires judgment, improvisation, and conversation about means and ends. (National Board for Professional Teaching Standards, 1994b, p. 4) Teachers are more than technicians who master a body of knowledge mandated by outside experts and then learn how to transmit that knowledge to students. They are knowledgeable professionals who know how to use their wisdom, skill, and judgment to improve student learning. Teachers in the study believed, as Lee Shulman (1998) does, that the National Board process will change teachers' perceptions of teaching by instilling greater confidence in their own knowledge and skills.
Improved analysis of instruction. Throughout the assessment process, the question why provided a constant framework for portfolio activities and group discussions. As teachers sought answers to this question, they acquired the habit of questioning themselves about their instructional decisions; they became more analytical about their instruction and developed the habits of mind that researchers consider essential for teacher development (Lyons, 1999; Sagor, 1997). Asking why implies choices and control over decisions, knowledge and expertise to answer the question, skills and flexibility to adjust and change, and responsibility for student outcomes.
Describing the certification process, one teacher said, "For the first time, I had to prove what I do, why I do it, and how" (Bohen, 2000, p. 90). Teachers attributed their increased confidence to being able to document and articulate—for peers, students, and parents—what they did and why they did it. A middle school resource teacher explained that she was better able to articulate her instructional goals for students to colleagues who taught the same students. A teacher in an alternative academic program for underperforming students reported that she could now use evidence to document more precisely her students' learning for her professional colleagues. Two high school mathematics teachers discovered the importance of talking and writing to help students develop a deeper understanding of mathematical concepts. They also learned the value of using assessments as learning tools for students.
Clearer focus on student outcomes. Teachers said that their sharpened focus on student outcomes resulted in more purposeful planning and integrated teaching, better questioning strategies and assignments, and increased use of assessments as learning tools. One teacher noted that she became more "efficient" by getting "rid of the unimportant—the things that don't make a difference for kids" (Bohen, 2000, p. 102)—for example, several games and other activities that did not contribute to student learning. The teachers also reported an increased ability to analyze not only what worked, but also why it worked and how it could be improved. As James W. Stigler and James Hiebert point out in The Teaching Gap (1999), reformers often forget that the goal of improving teaching is to improve learning and that improving complex systems, such as teaching, requires a relentless focus on the bottom-line goals—in this case, student learning—and a commitment to evaluate changes with respect to these goals. (p. 133)The certification process focuses on the link between teaching and student learning.
Greater commitment to professional growth. The certification process is more than an isolated experience with a single goal. The National Board's vision, in addition to establishing a credible system of advanced professional certification, is to provide teachers with opportunities for serious reflection about their practice and foster self-examination through professional dialogue with colleagues. (National Board for Professional Teaching Standards, 1994a, p. 1)The teachers in the case study knew that they would continue to examine and analyze their practice. I can't let go of all I've learned. It is now an integral part of me, the educator. . . . I can't stop reflective writing, observation, or open dialogue with colleagues. (Bohen, 2000, p. 89)
Catalyst for Change
Increased prestige. Teachers recognized the National Board's potential to strengthen the teaching profession and to serve as a catalyst for profound changes in what it means to be a teacher. One teacher noted:When the rigorous standards are better known to the public, our profession will gain the prestige it so richly deserves. (Bohen, 2000, p. 76)Teachers recognized the importance of the National Board's rigorous standards and assessments for ensuring teacher quality, validating teachers' professional stature, changing public perceptions, and improving salaries. The National Board certification process provides a structure, similar to the structures used by other professions, to determine a member's status. These certifications exert an influence on a profession's standards and expectations, as well as on public perceptions of the profession.
Greater appeal to new teachers. The next generation of teachers will have different expectations for their profession. Unlike the retiring generation of teachers, today's new teachers expect to pursue a staged career with differentiated roles and pay, greater leadership opportunities and rewards, more collegial support for professional growth, and less regulation. Talented young people considering a world of career opportunities will not be drawn to the stifling security of lockstep conformity, low pay, and limited advancement. Today's new teachers expect pay to reflect a teacher's value and performance and "are far more willing than their predecessors to explore alternative approaches to assessment and compensation" and consider the isolation that typifies teaching "anachronistic in this era of interdependent work" (Johnson, 2000, p. 33). The professional attributes valued by these teachers are those that the National Board fosters.
More shared expertise. The impact of the National Board process on teachers' professional perceptions is similar to the effects of Japan's lesson-study system on Japanese teachers. Japan's lesson-study system engages teachers in a collaborative critique and analysis of specific lessons.Through the process of improving lessons and sharing with colleagues the knowledge they acquire, something remarkable happens to teachers: They begin viewing themselves as true professionals. . . . as contributing to the knowledge base that defines the profession. (Stigler & Hiebert, 1999, p. 126)Establishing a lesson-study system in the United States would offer teachers a built-in strategy for sharing knowledge about teaching. Until such a system is fully developed, the National Board process may be one step toward redefining teacher professionalism in a way that puts teachers, working within the context of classrooms, at the heart of developing a professional knowledge base.
Building Momentum
The number of teachers certified by the National Board jumped from approximately 1,800 when I conducted my study to more than 4,800 last year and to 9,531 this year. The number of applicants is increasing even more rapidly. When I speak about the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards, the initial response is no longer, "The national what?"
More significant than the growing number of certified teachers is the strong support for the National Board's goals among diverse groups and organizations. At universities, National Board standards have been incorporated into teacher preparation and professional accreditation programs. The American Federation of Teachers and National Education Association have jointly published a guidebook (1999) for teachers aspiring to National Board certification. The key to the two unions' collaboration is that teachers are leaders in all aspects of the National Board's work; for example, more than half the National Board's 63 directors are classroom teachers. Coalitions with prestigious research institutions, such as the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching and Columbia University's Teachers College, and support from such associations as the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) are helping the National Board reach its goals. The strong support of governors, state legislators, and school boards has led 39 states and 180 school districts to provide various incentives and rewards for certification. Because of the fortuitous convergence of educational, social, and political forces, the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards is building unprecedented national momentum for change.
